Table2 Oncolytic Virus (OV)-modulated autophagy in oncolytic-based immunotherapy

OBP‐301

Induces autophagic cell death through an E2F1-miR-7-EGFR pathway

Provides information on oncolytic virotherapy's anticancer mechanism

[87]

OBP-702: p53-armed hTERT-Ad

Induces apoptosis and autophagy

Induces anti-tumor immune responses through regulation of miRNA and DRAM in human osteosarcoma cells

[202]

Oncolytic adenovirus OBP-405

Enhances of autophagic pathway

Anti-tumor effects on glioblastoma cells through combining autophagy-inducing agents, such as temozolomide (TMZ) and rapamycin

[84]

Ad (OBP-301)

Induces autophagy-associated cell death

Induces anti-tumor immune responses through production of DAMPs, such as uric acid, which promotes innate immune cells to produce interleukin 12 (IL-12) and interferon-γ (IFN-γ)

[203]

Ad(Δ24FvIII)

Induces autophagy by activation of c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) signal transduction pathway

Adenoviruses and autophagy inducers in combination may improve the processing and presentation of cancer-specific antigens integrated into capsid proteins

[204]

Adenoviruses 5/3-D24-GM-CSF

Induces tumor cell autophagy

Combines oncolytic Ad 5/3-D24-GM-CSF with temozolomide (TMZ) and metronomic cyclophosphamide (CP) trigger immunogenic cell death and anti-tumor immune responses through increasing ATP secretion, calreticulin (CRT), and high-mobility group box-1 expression (HMGB1)

[86]

Herpes simplex virus type 2 (ΔPK)

Induces autophagy

Increases the release of inflammatory cytokines granulocyte macrophage colony-stimulating factor, TNF-α, and IL-1β via autophagy-mediated stimulation of Toll-like receptor 2 pathways and pyroptosis

[205]

Newcastle disease virus (NDV), strain FMW (NDV/FMW)

Induces apoptosis and/or autophagy in cancer cells

Induces NDV-mediated immunogenic cell death (ICD) in lung cancer cells

[206]

Hitchner B1 (HB1) strain of newcastle disease virus

Induces autophagy in TC-1 cell line in a dose-dependent manner

Introduces HB1 NDV as a powerful candidate for the cervical cancer therapy

[207]

Newcastle disease virus (NDV)

Induces autophagy in ICD

Induces ICD in tumor cells, which primes adaptive immunity against tumor

[89]

Newcastle disease virus (NDV) strain NDV/FMW

NDV/FMW triggers autophagy in A549/PTX cells via dampening the class I PI3K/Akt/mTOR/p70S6K pathway, which inhibits autophagy

Combines NDV/FMW with autophagy modulators is an effective way to boost NDV/FMW therapeutic function in drug-resistant lung malignancies

[208]

AdΔ24

Induces autophagy act as cytoprotective function

Autophagy might play a survival function in AdΔ24-infected ovarian cancer cells

[209]

Telomelysin (Ad)

Induces autophagic cell death

Enhances the synthesis of inflammatory cytokines like IL-1, TNF-, and IL-6, as well as neutrophil chemotactic factors like IL-8/CXCL8 and S100A8/A9

[203, 210]