Table 5 The pharmacology of major alkaloids used for cancer treatment, their mode of action, oncological applications and side effects

Vinblastine

Known as Vincaleukoblastine hygroscopic crystalline compound water/methanol miscible white/slightly yellowish colour

Leaf stem root

Clings to tubulin prevents microtubules from developing anti-mitotic

Breast cancer

Lung cancer

Head and neck cancer

Hodgkin’s lymphoma

Testicular cancer

↓Bone marrow

↑Gastrointestinal toxicity

Potent vesicant

Extravasation injury

[47]

Vincristine

Known as Leucocristine colourless fluid in most pharmaceutical formulations

Leaf stem root

Binds to tubulin dimer prevents microtubule structures from forming mitotic inhibitor anti-mitotic

Non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma lymphoblastic leukemia nephroblastoma

Peripheral neuropathy hyponatremia, constipation paralysis, spinal nerve demyelination, lung spasm

[48, 49]

Vindesine

Catharanthus alkaloid, brand names: Eldisine, Fildesin accessible as a dissolved powder, it has the appearance of a whitish fluid

Leaf stem root

Anti-mitotic

Melanoma

Lung cancers

Uterine malignancies

Spinal nerve demyelination, hyponatremia, constipation, hair loss, nerve demyelination, breathing problems, lung spasm

[49, 50]

Vinorelbine

It is the first 5ʹNOR derived semi-synthetic Catharanthus alkaloid; from Catharanthus alkaloids vindoline and catharanthine using Polonovski fragmentation method

Leaf stem root

Anti-mitotic

Breast cancer

Non-small cell lung cancer

Inflammation of the veins, constipation, poor resistance to infection, bleeding, anaemia, nausea, diarrhoea, numbness or tingling in hands or feet

[51]

Vinflunine

Second-generation anticancer drug

Leaf stem root

↓ Transition from metaphase to anaphase, preventing cancer cells from entering mitosis

↑ apoptosis

Transitional cell carcinoma

breast cancer

Hair loss

Weariness

Overall sensation of weakness

[52]