Table 3 Emerging strategies to overcome exosome isolation challenges

Membrane-based separation

Magnetizing of oxide metal

Micron-sized metal oxide

Phosphate groups of exosomal lipid bilayer membrane can bind especially with particular oxide of metals (e.g., TiO2, ZrO2)

TiO2-based separation

High yield and fast technique

[98]

Micron-sized magnetic metal oxide

Magnetic TiO2-based separation

High efficiency to uptake urine-derived exosomes and its fast technique

[98, 99]

Microfluidics-based isolation

Physical properties-based microfluidics

Active isolation

External forces affect different physical characteristics of nanoparticles, such as size, electrical parts, and density

Acoustic force

Sufficient isolation efficacy, fast, versatility, and biocompatibility,

[101, 107]

Centrifugal microfluidics

Low centrifugal force, comparable recovery, and quick

[103]

Passive isolation

Combined platforms depended on intricate channel makeup or hydrodynamic properties

Pillar-based microfluidics

Samples with a high pixel density

Hydrodynamic-based microfluidics

Less complexity of fabrication and operation, fast, isolation of exosomes directly from entire blood, reproducibility, and portable

[108]

Immunoaffinity-based microfluidics

Mobile-coated medium

Magnetic beads or other magnetic nanoparticles coated with antibodies, together they have an enormous surface area and greater handling flexibility

Magnetic bead microfluidics

Sufficient separation, separation performed from entire blood

[105]

Merged Raman chip microfluidics

Significant targeting, production, and sensitive

[100]

Stationary-coated medium

Depend primarily on reaction exosomes with antibodies/aptamers fixed on the roof of microchannels

Double-use chip activated with antibodies

Specificity, high flow rate, high separation efficiency

[109]

Antibody-functionalized enhanced lipid membrane microarrays

High grade of susceptibility and sensitivity

[110]