Fig. 2

Microbiota play important role in gut environment and butyrate is an important metabolite produced by the microbiota. Microbiota induce TET expression and decrease the inflammation via TET.Butyrate inhibit HDAC, undifferentiated and stem cells, and increase the expression of AhR, GPR41, GPR109A, and mature colonocytes. PAMPs and DAMPs interact with TLRs and TLR 4 is one of the most considerable one. TLR 4 induce DUOX2 and NOX1 expression and it activates PI3K /AKT/NF-kB and PI3K/Wnt/ β-catenin signaling pathways which play important role in inflammatory response and metabolic reprogramming. PAMPs: Pathogen-associated molecular patterns, DAMPs: Damage-associated molecular patterns, TLR: Toll-like receptor, AhR: Aryl hydrocarbon receptor, GPR41: G-protein-coupled receptor 41, GPR109A: G-protein coupled receptor 109A, TET: Ten-Eleven-Translocation, HDAC: Histone deacetylase, 5HMC: 5-hydroxymethylcytosine, DUOX2: Dual oxidase 2, NOX1: NADPH Oxidase 1, STAT3: Signal transducers and activators of transcription 3, SIRT1: Sirtuin 1